Demonstrative Speech on Giving Cpr free essay sample

Mrs.. Graham Effective Speaking Critique Discussions an) A segment investigation of this crowd would Include age, sexual orientation, training, bunch participations, just as social and ethnic foundations (German, Greenberg, Enlarge, Monroe, 2002) This crowd was a huge gathering of Stanford college understudies on there graduation day. The understudies comprised of fundamentally more youthful grown-ups to moderately aged guys and females. Their instruction level had Just arrived at college alumni on this very day.There bunch enrollments changed from competitors, sorority individuals, to Just understudies from various social and ethnic foundations. B) This discourse followed a fundamental discourse diagram. It had an Introduction were he clarified that he would be revealing to us three accounts of his life( Jobs, 2005). He utilized changes and the body recounted to the three stories. He additionally had an end wrapping up the discourse. C) In this discourse he utilized numerous correspondence strategies. He utilized individual references when he recounted to the three stories from is own life. We will compose a custom paper test on Expressive Speech on Giving Cpr or then again any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page He was entertaining when he stated, windows duplicates the MAC.He expressed his armory goal that he cherished what he did throughout everyday life and moved them to do what they love. He additionally moved them to continue looking until they found what they cherished Cobs, 2005). D) He was attempting to send the audience members a message to do what they adored and to live ordinarily as though it was your last Bobs, 2005). He utilized the skyhook rule which Is an approach to persuade your crowd you have their eventual benefits as a main priority (German, Greenberg, Engineer, Monroe, 2002). He did this purchase considering there moral casing by settling on moral decisions (German, Greenberg, Engineer, Monroe, 2002).

Promotional Strategy For The New Water Based Theme Park In Darling Harbor

Presentation and depiction of the undertaking Darling harbor is one of the recreational locales in Sydney, Australia. There are various amusement and entertainments destinations at the middle. The primary attractions of the harbor are Chinese’s Friendship Garden, Cockle Bay Wharf, IMAX Theater, aquariums, presentation focus, strip malls and exhibition hall. The Sydney Harbor Foreshore Authority (SHFA) has built up a ultra current water based topic park.Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Promotional Strategy For The New Water Based Theme Park In Darling Harbor explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The recreation center will offer amusement for grown-ups, young people and kids. The primary fascination for the amusement parks will be water rides, voyaging appears, extraordinary landscapes, food administrations, move liners; train rides firecrackers, tumbling, gambling clubs and different types of diversions. The amusement park is going to open an d there is have to complete a fruitful limited time battle to draw in voyagers in Austria just as from different pieces of the world. This paper diagrams the limited time systems for the amusement park. Amusement park statement of purpose The statement of purpose for this amusement park is â€Å"to give top notch beguilement, fun and diversion to all our regarded clients in Australia and the world in general† Theme park basic beliefs The principle basic beliefs of the water world amusement park are; Customer center: all items and administrations will concentrate on clients and fulfill their need. The amusement park will offer High quality types of assistance and items. Great corporate culture: the amusement park advances collaboration among all partners and representatives fulfillment Safety and eagerness: the workers will guarantee that the rides and different exercises are protected. The ground will likewise be made sure about to guarantee that there are no loss of property Compassion and trustworthiness Theme park destinations To offer great types of assistance and delight to the nearby and universal travelers To be a significant vacation spot in Australia To acquire benefits and addition in any event 20% of the objective market The limited time crusades will advance the qualities, targets and crucial the amusement park (Aaker, 1998). All the limited time messages will be planned in order to transmit the basic beliefs and crucial the recreation center. Target showcase investigation and division The fundamental clients for the amusement park will be from the nearby and the global network. So as to distinguish the objective market, the primary clients were recognized and portioned suitably (Cateora, Gilly Graham, 2010). The primary division was put together on:Advertising Looking for report with respect to business financial matters? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nationality Age Income Age: This is the most significant characterization. In view old enough, the market can be partitioned into, kids, youngsters, grown-ups and older. The special messages will be detailed in order to focus on the various gatherings. For the kids, the advancement messages will be figured to edify the parent as they are the chiefs and furthermore the lenders. The amusement park will be advertised as the best goal for children to have a great time and just as their folks. Nationality: Based on this division, there are two primary kinds of clients; the neighborhood vacationers who originate from Australia and the worldwide visitors who show up from different nations. The two objective markets have various societies, language, standards, values and different qualities and the advancement messages must be planned in order to target them in an unexpected way. Pay: The amusement park market will likewise be fragmented dependent on pay. The settlement, rides, shops will be masterminded in order to t arget various clients. For instance, the inn suites will be showcased to such an extent that there are lavish suits for high salary workers and the white collar class suites for low pay workers. Both universal and neighborhood clients can be divided as high, medium and low pay workers. Contender investigation The water based amusement park has numerous contenders situated in Australia and globally. A competitor’s examination was completed and it included contender recognizable proof, spreading out the principle targets of the contenders, deciding their upper hands and laying out their special methodologies (Tellis, 1998). Contender ID: There are other amusement stops in a similar zone just as different organizations working in a similar district which offer comparable administrations. These include: DreamWorld, Luna Park, Adventure World, White Water World, Sea World Gold Coast, Wanner Bro Movie World and Mack Water Coaster Track. These parks offer administrations that are fi rmly identified with the water based amusement park be opened. Contender destinations: Sydney Australia is one of the most serious markets. The numerous rivals in the travel industry business and their fundamental goals are: to augment on their benefits, expands their offer in the market, to pull in more clients and to grow new creative beguilement for the entire family.Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Promotional Strategy For The New Water Based Theme Park In Darling Harbor explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Promotional techniques: a large portion of the rivals in this market use print media, TVs, and commercials in their sites as the essential special strategies. A Strength Weakness, Opportunities and Threat examination was completed in order to assess the upper hands of the contenders. These were contrasted and the water based amusement park being promoted (Pickton Broderick, 2005). The subsequent SWOT examination grid is appeared in the tab le 1 underneath COMPANY STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS Luna park Has diversions for the entire family Well settled Has been in the business for an extensive stretch Has been utilized severally to film motion pictures Very numerous rides, for example, tango train, wild mouse, flying saucer, arachnid among others (Luna Park 2013). The recreation center has been shutting and reviving a lot of times because of mishaps (apparition train fire which killed 7 individuals ) , The recreation center has likewise been shut by government because of security issues There are contamination gripes Mostly showcased as a children goal Large Australian market Growing requirement for entire family diversion Possibility of another film be recorded there Competition from other amusement parks Government guidelines Safety issues Environmental contamination concerns Water park Gold coast Over 15 years experience Good promoting methodologies Good location(next to waner brothers) Attracts the two children and adults Very numerous beguilements and administrations, for example, surf rider, mammoth falls, Black opening, kamikaze among others (Water Park Gold Coast, 2013) Not numerous vacation destinations other than rides. vacationer line sitting tight for diversions Dirty offices enormous Australian market Large outside market Other contenders Safety gives New water based amusement park Adequate offices Safety and security are ensured The recreation center will pull in all age bunches Quality administrations at reasonable costs Other amusement, for example, gambling clubs, food, visitor rooms and presentation focus The advertising and special procedure will be one of a kind. Absence of experience The recreation center is new and not generally known There is an enormous neighborhood showcase The new administrations and hardware will draw in numerous fans There is a huge worldwide market The previously existing amusement parks present noteworthy test to the new firm. Danger of other new amusement parks be created Identification of the upper hands From the SWOT investigation did, the primary upper hands of the new water based amusement park being built up are: Safety and security: before, amusement parks have honey bee confronted with issues of security and absence of wellbeing. The new amusement park will situate itself as having extremely sheltered and secure diversion administrations. Quality: The characteristics of the types of gear at all the present amusement park are old and filthy. The new amusement park then again has new types of gear which are in accordance with present day amusement parks. Healthy amusement: Most of the topic packs either target kids or grown-ups. The momentum water based amusement park will target visitors from the whole partition. Likewise, the amusement park will have guest’s room, shops, food, gambling clubs to draw in more visitors. Market pioneer in estimating: In the short run, the recreation center will offer adm inistrations at a limited rate to draw in clients. The recreation center will likewise endeavor to be a market head in valuing and will charge most minimal for their quality administrations (Ries Trout, 2000).Advertising Searching for report on business financial matters? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Determinations and Description of the Promotional Strategy There are distinctive limited time systems that can be utilized to advertise the new topic. The special procedure chose depended on the accompanying variables (Kotler, 2003): Ability to arrive at the objective market Visibility of the message Cost of the limited time methodology The intended interest group The primary strategies that will be utilized to advance the recreation center are: Advertising: Advertisement makes mindfulness among nearby and outside organizations. Different notice messages will be arranged and sent through the various channels of correspondence. Deals advancements: Various deals advancements methodologies will be utilized to advertise the new amusement park (Kotler et al., 1998). These include: Free administrations: In request to infiltrate the market, the recreation center will offer free rides for each and every individual who has booked the tickets. All kids who have booked tickets will be qualified for additional rides and this will propel their folks to pay for them. This will be accomplished for the initial four months. Limits: Frequent clients will be given a 20% markdown to inspire them to continue coming. Any client who goes to the standard

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Is Fair Value Accounting Really Fair - 1021 Words

For our project, we wanted to pick the topic, â€Å"Is fair value accounting really fair?† The first part of our presentation was simply explaining what fair value accounting is. This is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transactions. According to the Financial Accounting Standards Board, the price that would be received to sell an asset or price to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date is the idea behind Fair Value accounting. FASB came up with SFAS 157 to improve this accounting principle. Some of their objectives were to â€Å"provide a framework for fair value measurements, change the definition of fair value, elaborate on the concept of market participants.† In our presentation, we want to discuss how fair value accounting affects society in businesses. One example of how this effected society as a whole was the 2008 financial crisis. In this financial crisis, many companies were impacted but in particular AID insurance company faced a 11 billion dollar write down of debt before FASB introduced their new guidelines of SFAS 157. If this happened after these guidelines were passed, this company would have had a loss more like 900 million dollars. As a result, a company with trillion dollars of assets reported unrealized losses of tens of billions. Another area that was impacted was the American BankingShow MoreRelatedInternational Accounting Standards Codification System1414 Words   |  6 PagesIn 2006, the FASB issued Statement No. 157, â€Å"Fair Value Measurements† (SFAS 157), and in 2007 issued Statement No. 159. The objective of SFAS 157 is to increase the consistency, comparability and transparency of fair value measurements used in financial reporting by establishing â€Å"a single authoritative definition of fair value, a framework for measuring fair value, and fair value financial statement disclosure requirements†(http://www.iasplus.com/en/binary/usa/0808fairvalueupdate.pdf). In 2011,Read MoreDefining Fair Value Essay1280 Words   |  6 PagesRevalued amount is fair value at date of revaluation less subsequent accumulated depreciation and impairment losses (Touche, 2009). Canadian and U.S. GAAP use historical cost as the basis of measurement for property, plant and equipment (Touche, 2009). Revaluations are prohibited in both Canadian and U.S. GAAP (Touche, 2009). So what does that mean for companies not sure of what to choose or needs guidance? Even when a particular IFRS lacks guidance, the application of the IAS 8 Accounting Policies, ChangesRead MoreAccounting Research: Advantages of Cash Flow1720 Words   |  7 Pagesdependent on accounting conventions and concepts/principles * Cash flow reporting satisfies the needs of all users better since cash flow is more direct with its messages. Some of the interested user parties are: * Creditors   -repayment of debts, overdue accounts * Management -cash flow reporting provides the type of information which decision should be taken re: relevant costs ( decision based on future cash flow) * Shareholders amp; Auditors -cash flow accounting and reportingRead MoreClient Understanding Paper1223 Words   |  5 PagesTilley Running head: CLIENT UNDERSTANDING PAPER 1 CLIENT UNDERSTANDING PAPER 2 Client Understanding Paper In the course of normal business operations certain transactions require specific treatment in accordance with generally accepted accounting procedures (GAAP). To properly prepare financial statements, the analysis of working papers is imperative to insuring compliance. Clarification of why information is needed about adjusting lower cost of market inventory on valuation, capitalizingRead MoreChanges in treatment of goodwill due to IFRS 31152 Words   |  5 Pages Changes in treatment of goodwill due to IFRS 3 Paper On 19th November 2013 at the Berlin School of Economics and Law Study programme: Accounting and Controlling Matriculation year: 2013 Matriculation number: 412410 Semester: Winter semester Table of contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 2. Prior treatment of goodwill†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 2.1 Goodwill amortization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 3 3. Goodwill after adoption of IFRS 3†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreIFRS TO GAAP Essay815 Words   |  4 Pageseven harder. IFRS 8-1: What are some steps taken by both the FASB and IASB to move to fair value measurement for financial instruments? In what ways have some of the approaches differed? The fair value measurements does provide the users who have the financial statements with correct picture of the value of the company’s assets. The IFRS and GAAP, demand firms to include information that is essential to fair value measurement practices in the notes of financial statements. It does not matter whichRead MoreEssay on Comparing Gaap to Ifrs787 Words   |  4 PagesIFRS 8-1: What are some steps taken by both the FASB and IASB to move to fair value measurement for financial instruments? In what ways have some of the approaches differed? Fair value measurements have the power to provide users of financial statements with an accurate depiction of the value of the company’s assets. IFRS and GAAP are strict in the fact that they require the firms to include information regarding fair value measurement practices in the notes of financial statements. When followingRead MoreDiscuss the Difficulties Relating to the Recognition and Measurement of Intangibles Generally and of Brands in Particular.1236 Words   |  5 Pagesdiscussion. According to IAS 38, an intangible asset defines as â€Å"an identifiable, non-monetary asset without physical substance† including brand, computer software, patents and copyrights. As this typical asset has no physical substance, it is really difficult to recognize and measure it. This essay mainly aims to explain the difficulties to recognize and measure generally intangible assets especially the brand and some analyze refer to the Enigma example will be shown. An item cannot be anRead MoreEnron And The Enron Scandal1387 Words   |  6 Pagesthen formed into energy, commodities, and service company. Lay then hired Jeff Skilling as CEO; it was these two and a few other high-ranking executives that led to the failure of Enron. In short, Enron was losing money, but with the work of fancy accounting and taking advantage of free enterprise, reported huge false profits. This all came to a head in 2001 when Enron declared bankruptcy. From the employees perspective. When looking at the employees’ point of view on the scandal, we first start withRead MorePresentation Of A Presentation On The Presentation1001 Words   |  5 Pagesin to the conclusion. My first part in the presentation was to speak and provide information about our topic i.e. measurement, and mixed measurement approach that are commonly used in accounting, which are historical cost, current cost/replacement cost, fair value/realisable value, present value and deprival value (rarely applied). For the successful presentation, it is very important to clearly provide brief introduction to the topic/content to the audiences, as without the detailed introduction

Vision And Mission Of Infosys In Consulting And It Services Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2927 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Infosys is a reputed global consulting and IT services company established in 1981. This NASDAQ listed company was established in Pune, India by N.R. Narayana Murthy and six engineers with US $ 250 as initial capital. Today with its strong business strategy and IT strength, it has grown to become a US $ 4.8 billion company with a market capitalization of approximately US $ 33 billion. VISION AND MISSION INFOSYS VISION To be a globally respected corporation that provides best-of-breed business solutions, leveraging technology, delivered by best-in-class people. Infosys does not just want to be a corporation which just focuses on increasing its business and revenue, rather its vision is to be a corporation which provides best business solution by indulging best talented people and eventually to become a reputed and respected corporation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Vision And Mission Of Infosys In Consulting And It Services Business Essay" essay for you Create order INFOSYS MISSION To achieve our objectives in an environment of fairness, honesty, and courtesy towards our clients, employees, vendors and society at large. Infosys focuses on maintaining fairness, honesty and courtesy towards their clients, employees, vendors and society in their path of achieving their objective. They believe that these three key aspects were the main factors in achieving their vision. GLOBAL FOOTPRINT AND OFFERED SERVICES Infosys has made his footprint globally with offices and development centers across the world. It has expanded its business globally by operating in 28 countries which covers Europe, America, Middle East, Africa, and APAC (Asia Pacific and China). Infosys offers various services to sustain in the competitive environment and to enhance their growth. Services offered: Business and Technology consulting Application services Systems integration services Product engineering services Custom software development services Maintenance services Re-engineering services Independent testing and validation services IT infrastructure services Business Process Outsourcing services Infosys follows a blended offering of onsite high quality business consulting and offsite impeccable technology implementation. This eventually reduces the cost of taking the entire team of business consultants to a client site. In the application services, they offer application development, maintenance and modernization. They focus on delivering high quality, flexible applications that are easy to maintain. To deliver a world class process outsourcing, Infosys BPO services combine technology, process skills and domain expertise. In terms of industry segment, Infosys offers services to many industries which includes; Aerospace and defence Airl ines Automotive Banking, insurance and capital markets Communication Manufacturing and technology Logistics Education Healthcare COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT OF INFOSYS Infosys being a leading company in India faces a lot of competition in local, national and international market. With its in-depth industry expertise, Information Technology and innovative strength, Infosys competes over its competitors, sustains its business and enhances its growth. LOCAL AND NATIONAL COMPETITORS HEXAWARE TECHNOLOGIES Hexaware technologies is an IT and BPO service provider company based in Mumbai, India. In the local and national level, it makes a healthier competition with Infosys mainly in the banking and health care software services sector. ATARI INFORMATICS Atari Informatics, an IT company based in New Delhi, India, is another competitor of Infosys in local and national level. It provides a healthier competition in BPO sector, mainly in local and national banking sector. FINIX INFOSOLUTION Finix infosolution, based in Chennai, India is a challenging company offering a healthy competition in testing and networking services domain in local and national level. Though these companies managed to compete with Infosys in the local and national market, these companies could not cope up with the standard offered by Infosys and these companies could grab only a small portion of business comparatively. In a poll conducted in 2010 by Finance-Asia, a leading financial magazine, Infosys was selected as the best managed company in India by investors and analysts across Asia. INTERNATIONAL COMPETITORS In the international market, a healthy rivalry in terms of competition is offered by TCS (Tata Consultancy Services), CTS (Cognizant Technology Solutions), Wipro, Accenture, Microsoft, IBM, HP, LT Technologies. Infosys has a heavy competitive environment in all the services offered by them in the international market. With the impact of globalization, every organization is concerned about taking their organization into the global business field. The above mentioned competitors are globally very well established in terms of reputation and financial strength. Infosys offers a high competition to their rivals in the BPO sector and it won the Forbes magazines Most Dynamically Developing BPO Center in Poland award for the year 2010. Infosys was ranked among the best in investor relations in APAC (Asia Pacific and China). In the International Association of Outsourcing Professionals Global Outsourcing 100, Infosys was ranked second. Infosys planned and organized their services i nto different sectors, which helped them to increase focus and time managing ability. Infosys with their effective use of IT and strategic planning, made a global footprint with its presence in 28 countries across the world and offers a very healthy competition to its rivals and achieves business, awards and reputation in local, national and international market. STRATEGIC ANALYSIS Strategic analysis can be defined as the process of conducting study on the business environment of an organisation. The strategic analysis process uses a number of tools, out of which SWOT and PESTEL analysis are used here. SWOT ANALYSIS SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. Ron Basu. (2004) states, A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) is a tool for analysing an organizations competitive position in relation to its competitors STRENGTHS Infosys considers diversity as an important asset and is one of the main strength. They attract and retain global talent by offering best diversity opportunities. Infosys has more than 100,000 employees from 70 nationalities working together in an inclusive environment. Infosys has marked its footprint in 28 countries and this enhances its capability to support the global operations of multinational clients. Efficient and highly innovative Research and Development facility is the main strength of Infosys. Infosys has a strong financial position. The present revenue is US $ 4.8 billion which shows an increase of 7.3% compared to the previous year. Impressive list of global 2000 clientele is an added strength. WEAKNESSES Infosys major revenue is from banking and financial sector and this sector is facing a crisis globally and even reduced their spending in IT. Excessive dependence on US for revenue is a major weakness as most of the companies in US are cutting their IT budget. Comparing to its international competitors like HP, EDS, IBM and Accenture its revenue is relatively low. In the sector of high-end management consultancy, Infosys is weaker while comparing with Accenture and IBM which dominates this sector. Since many of its competitors are US based, it struggles to achieve US Federal government contracts. Infosys could not grab these highly profitable contracts since there were political pressures on US government to offer these contracts to US based companies OPPORTUNITIES Since there is a huge industrial revolution in China, there is a new and emerging market. Access to new business market in oil and gas industry through their strategic alliance with Schlumberger Limited. Many firms across the globe are adopting outsourcing at an increased pace. This increases the opportunities of getting more new clients, which are yet to adopt outsourcing. Demand for IT services in Indian market is expected an increased growth of 20% and there is greater scope in product innovation and services domains like transportation and infrastructure. THREATS Many global players have realised that the availability of low-cost and highly skilled labours in India. This makes Infosys compete with other global players for skilled labour. This eventually raises the wage levels and creates difficulty in retaining talented staff. Policies made by US government against outsourcing to companies based other than in US. Fierce competition from competitors with greater reputation and financial strength. There is a large pool of low-cost and skilled labours in countries like Korea and China. New competitors may come from these countries and customers may switch to these competitors. PESTEL ANALYSIS The PESTEL analysis helps to scan the external macro environment in which the company operates. PESTEL stands for Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal. All these factors play a vital role in the value creation opportunities of a companys strategy. POLITICAL The globalisation policies in many countries paved the way for many companies to invest in foreign markets. Even though globalisation policies helped Infosys to invest in many countries, it eventually increased the number of competitors in that field. The enacted legislation by some U.S. states which restricted government agencies from outsourcing their Information Technology solutions and back office processes to the companies outside U.S. is also a threat. This may some time extended such that the private U.S. companies, some of which are Infosys clients may also be restricted to outsource their works related to government. If this policy was made, then Infosys may face adverse impact. The decision made by Government owned companies and public sector units in India to give more IT projects to Indian IT companies is a great advantage to Infosys. The politics in many countries are very instable which eventually affects the markets of Infosys. It is very essential that for a firm to be successful, it has to adapt to the changing policies made by the local government and should find way to overcome those issues. ECONOMICAL Infosys majority revenue comes from the clients in U.S. The economic activities in U.S. decreased due to the current economic downturn. This made a great impact in the major economies of the world where Infosys have their business. The economic downturn progress may force the companies to reduce their information technology outsourcing budgets. In recent days real estate prices has reduced in India. This eventually reduced the rental expenditures. Since Infosys business depends upon overall demand for IT and the economic health of their clients, the week economic condition, reduced outsourcing budgets and currency fluctuation will affect their demand and eventually result in reduced revenue. SOCIAL IT and offshore outsourcing services companies are highly competitive and they are served by many global, national and local companies. Many of the global competitors of Infosys have greater financial, marketing and technical resources and greater name recognition than Infosys. In India there are many technical institutions and universities that offer IT education and this increased the availability of more technically sound candidates in IT field. The working age population is also high in India. There is a threat from client side that they may choose those companies with greater resource and reputation. Salaries and related benefits constitute a major portion of total cost. Most of Infosys employees are based in India and wage costs in India have historically been significantly lower than wage costs in United States and Europe for comparably skilled professionals, and this has been one of Infosys competitive advantages. TECHNOLOGICAL The rapid technological change, new product introduction, evolving industry standards and changing client preferences characterises the IT and offshore outsourcing services industries. In these modern technology era, for every second there is some development in every field and that too in IT field, the technological development is very rapid. To withstand in this rapid growing field, updation and adaptability to change of technology is very important. The second largest telephone network after China is the Indian telephone network. This increased the number of outsourcing projects in this field and Infosys bags numerous BPO and research related projects in this field. Infosys clearly focuses on technological factors and it has a very good infrastructure and its research arm is highly focused in innovation and updation of the technologies used in their business. ENVIRONMENTAL Infosys is more concerned about the environment. Infosys believes that the environment can be a participant and a beneficiary of progress. Infosys wishes to be recognized as a company committed to high standards of environmental management by all stakeholders, including customers, employees, vendors, share owners and community at large. Infosys pays keen attention in providing a safe and healthy environment to its contractors, consultants and employees. Infosys considers every means of reducing the carbon footprint, water consumption and energy utilization. Infosys pay more attention towards the environmental factors as they believe that these factors contribute to their social respect and eventually to their business and reputation. LEGAL For providing a sound legal environment for the IT companies, the IT act, 2000 in India is being strengthened by the India government. This particularly focuses on issues like security of data in storage and transmission. IT companies in India are offered with tax and fiscal benefits and can set up Special Economic Zones with a minimum area of 10 hectares. Globally there is a huge debate regarding the bonds under which employees are required to work. This is followed in many countries and this is not legally required. This causes difficulties in attracting global talents. INFOSYS STRATEGY AND THE IMPACT Johnson, G. Scholes, K. (1999) states, Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over the long-term: which achieves advantage for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a challenging environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholder expectations.` Infosys strongly believes that their client-focused strategy is the key factor that helps them to achieve growth. Infosys believes that choosing their client is also a factor that determines their reputation. Their strategy focuses on limited number of large reputed organization that pays attention towards quality in products rather than focusing on numerous small organizations without quality concern. Beyond a certain limit, Infosys does not negotiate over margins and at times rather than compromising on quality for low cost contracts, it prefers to walk out from that business. Their strategy focuses on building an image for quality driven model rather than cost differentiating m odel. INCREASE BUSINESS FROM EXISTING AND NEW CLIENTS Infosys pays more attention in increasing its recurring business by providing software re-engineering, maintenance, business process management and infrastructure management services which require frequent contact with clients and are long term in nature. By leveraging its in-depth industry expertise, it provides value added solutions to its new clients and sustains their business with their new clients. EXPAND GEOGRAPHICALLY Expanding its geographical reach is one of the Infosys strategic objectives. To achieve this they establish new offices in many countries. Through Infosys China, Infosys Australia and Infosys Mexico, it increases its presence in China, Australia and Latin America respectively. Through its Infosys BPO, it increases its presence in Czech Republic and Eastern Europe. ENHANCE SOLUTION SET AND BRAND VISIBILITY Infosys focuses on emerging technologies and innovation. They added new service offerings like system integration and infrastructure management in recent years which enhanced their growth. By investing and participating in media, industry analyst events, trade shows and community outreach programs, Infosys enhances its brand visibility. ALLIANCE AND STRATEGIC ACQUISITION Infosys makes alliance with many leading technology providers to strengthen its service and business solutions. They pay attention on acquiring companies that are in line with strategic goals. GLOBAL DELIVERY MODEL Infosys focuses on achieving cost advantage by their global delivery model. They follow the principle of producing where it is most cost effective and selling where it is most profitable. MOVING UP THE VALUE CHAIN Moving up the value chain is one of the objectives of Infosys strategy. They believe that getting involved at the earliest stage in a software development project would make them to be in the leading position in the competitive environment. Ansoff, I. Mc Donnell, E. (1990) states, Strategic management is a systematic approach for managing strategic change, which consists of the following: 1. Positioning of the firm through strategy and capability planning 2. Real-time strategic response through issue management 3. Systematic management of resistance during strategic implementation Infosys has a very good strategic planning and management capability, which enhances their growth. The major and brilliant advantageous development of Infosys strategic planning is the development of SET Labs. The research arm of Infosys is the Software Engineering Technology Labs (SET Labs). Infosys defines its RD concept as a different concept from its competitors and terms it as Applie d RD. They perform research on their own after a lot of environment scanning and look at what would add value for Infosys and eventually to its clients. To overcome the problem of economic slowdown, Infosys developed new business models using IT. They focused on developing industry specific and domain specific solutions. They introduced the Platform BPO concept which allows their customer to follow the pay-as-you-go pricing mode. Infosys managed to withstand their business during economic slowdown by introducing Platform BPO. They pay more attention in their IT and IT strategy which eventually enhances their new technology adaptation and innovation. The below table shows the geographical revenue break-up for the year end, March 31, 2010 (All denominations in Indian Rupees) PARTICULARS NORTH AMERICA EUROPE INDIA REST OF THE WORLD TOTAL REVENUES YEAR ENDED MARCH 31, 2010 14972 Crores 5237 Crores 270 Crores 2263 Crores 22742 Crores T he revenue for the year end March 31, 2009 is 21693 crores Indian rupees. Thus with their effective strategy, Infosys achieved an increase in revenue by 1049 crores Indian rupees. CONCLUSION From the above study, one can infer that Infosys has grown as a leading company with its IT and strategic planning. Strategic planning plays a major role in analysing and gaining knowledge about the issues that the company has to tackle in the near or far future. Infosys with their strategic planning and management strived hard and even managed to be in the competitive environment even in the period of global economic down turn. They still have to focus on the internal and external factors which contribute to the weakness and threats so as to overcome all near and far future issues. It is clear form the analysis that Infosys has proved to be reputed company with good growth.

Growth of Telecommunications Systems Free Essays

string(48) " server to maintain information on its clients\." Books Wright, Michael and Mukul Patel. 2000. Scientific American – How Things Work Today. We will write a custom essay sample on Growth of Telecommunications Systems or any similar topic only for you Order Now London: Marshall Publishing Ltd. B. 1 The world is currently in the middle of a communications revolution as dramatic as the Industrial Revolution that created our modern society two centuries ago. The growth of telecommunications systems, the arrival of the Internet, and the proliferation of computers in every aspect of our lives are transforming both industrial and knowledge-based economies round the world. Higher disposable incomes and increased leisure time are also fuelling demand for luxury electronic goods and new forms of entertainment. Since the British inventor Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone in 1877, telephony has become the most important form of distance communication. The telephone network is now truly global, with submarine cables and communications satellites linking every continent. This globe-spanning network handles phone calls, fax transmissions, and internet traffic. The long-distance â€Å"backbones† of the telephone network are high capacity optical-fiber cables. Lower-capacity copper cables connect individual phones to the network. The analog signal from an ordinary phone is sampled 4,000 times per second and converted into an 8-bit ddigital signal. Several conversations can then be transmitted simultaneously down the same cable, using a technique known as multiplexing, which increases the capacity of the network. Routing calls through the telephone network is done automatically be telephone exchanges. In near future, the telephone network may also carry video and music channels, interactive televisions, videophone calls. Analog signal – Analog electric signals from ordinary phones are carried by copper cable to the local exchange. Base station – The base station receiving the sthrongest signal from a cell phone routes the call to the cell phone exchange. Cell – The cell phone network is divided into hexagonal cells, each with a base station in the middle. Cell phone exchange – Calls are routed to the main exchange or direct to a base station by the cell phone exchange. Cell phone network – Base stations send ddigital information to the cell phone exchange over optical-fiber or copper cable. Communication satellite – Orbiting satellites are used to route calls between places not linked by a cable. Ddigital signal – Ddigital information is multiplexed, allowing multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously. Fax machine – Fax transmissions are sent over the telephone network. Line-of-sight microwave link – Digitized call from local exchanges are often routed to the main exchange via terrestrial microwave links. Local exchange – The local exchange digitizes calls for long-distance transmission. Long-distance or international connection – Optical fibers are used to transmit long-distance calls, many optical fiber cables are laid on the seabed. Main exchange – The main exchange handles communications between ordinary phones and the cell phone network and routes long-distance and international calls. Microwaves – Ddigital information is sent from cell phones to base stations using microwave frequencies. Moving cell phone – Mobility is the prime asset of the cell phone. Optical fibers – Transmitting ddigital information by light pulses enables many calls to be sent down one fiber simultaneously. Satellite uplink – Encrypted ddigital information is sent to satellites using microwave frequencies. Seamless reconnection – As the cell phone moves from one cell to another, the call is rerouted from one base station to the next, without the break in the conversation. Urban cell – Cell are smaller in urban areas, giving the network greater capacity. Weakening Signal – As the cell phone moves farther away from the base station, the signal weakens. —- Tanenbaum, Andrew S. and Maareten van Steen. 2002. Distributed Systems Principles and Paradigms. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. B. 2 A process is often defined as a program in execution, that is, a program that is currently being executed on one of the operating system’s virtual pprocessors . An important issue is that the operating system takes great care to ensure that independent processes cannot maliciously or inadvertently affect the correctness of each other’s behavior. In other words, the fact that multiple processes may be concurrently sharing the same CPU and other hardware resources is made transparen’t. Usually, the operating system requires hardware support to enforce this separation. B. 2 Threads in Distributed Systems – An important property of threads is that they can provide a convenient mearns of allowing blocking system calls without blocking the entire process in which the thread is running. This property makes threads particularly attractive to use in distributed systems as it makes it much easier to express communication in the form of maintaining multiple logical connections at the same time. We illustrate this point by taking a closer look at multithreaded clients and servers, respectively. B. 2 Clients and Servers – In the basic client-server model, processes in a distributed system are divided into two (possibly overlapping) groups. A server is a process implementing a specific service, for example, a file system service or a database service. A client is a process that requests a service from a server by sending it a request and subsequently waiting for the server’s reply. This client-server interaction, also known as request-reply behavior. B. 2Communication between a client and a server can be implemented by mearns of a simple connectionless protocol when the underlying network is fairly reliable as in many local-area networks. In these cases, when a client requests a service, it simply packages a message for the server, identifying the service it wants, along with the necessary input data. The message in then sent to the server. The latter, in turn, will always wait for an incoming request, subsequently process it, and package the results in a reply message that is then sent to the client. Page 657 Communication – All communication in the Web between clients and servers is based on the Hypertext transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is a relatively simple client-server protocol; a client sends a request message to a server and waits for a response message. An important property of HTTP is that it is stateless. In other words, it does not have any concept of open connection and does not require a server to maintain information on its clients. You read "Growth of Telecommunications Systems" in category "Papers" The most recent version of HTTP is described in (Fielding et al. , 1999). Page 648 The World Wide Web (WWW) can be viewed as a huge distributed system consisting of millions of clients and servers for accessing linked documents. Servers maintain collections of documents, while clients provide users an easy-to-use interface for presenting and accessing those documents. The Web started as a project at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, to let its large and geographically dispersed group of researchers provide access to shared documents using a simple hypertext system. A document could be anything that could be displayed on a user’s computer terminal, such as personal notes, reports, figures, blueprints, drawings, and so on. By linking documents to each other, it became easy to iintegrate documents from different projects into a new document without the necessity for centralized changes. The only thing needed was to construct a document providing links to other relevant documents (see also Berners-Lee et al. , 1994). Since 1994, Web developments are primarily initiated and controlled by the World Wide Web Consortium, a collaboration between CERN and M. I. T. this consortium is responsible for standardizing protocols, improving interoperability, and further enhancing the capabilities of the Web. Its home page can be found at http://www. w3. org/. —– London, Sherry. 2000. Illustrator 9 f/x Design. Arizona: The Coriolis Group, LLC. Page 427 Image resolution seems to be a tricky and complex topic the most people. I usually urge folks to work in pixels inside the Photoshop because pixels are fixed: A 900-pixel-wide image contains 900 pixels, regardless of its ppl. However, if the ppl is set to 300, the 900-pixel image prints at 3 inches wide; if the ppl is set to 100, the 900-pixel image prints 9 inches wide – but it still contains only 900 pixel across. Therefore, I find it much easier to think in pixels. —– Harb, M. 1989. Modern Telephony. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Page 9 The Telephone of Today The end user or subscriber is the main concern in any communication link. The subscriber can be either a private part or a business. In all cases, the telephone set is used to transmit and receive, sequentially or simultaneously. The Telephone Set The telephone set is an instrument used to transmit and receive information or calls sequentially or simultaneously, thus permitting one party to communicate with another. For this communicate to take place, the telephone set must have the following component: a transmitter, a receiver, bell, a dialer, and a switchhook. Page 150-152 Cellular mobile communication is considered to be the breakthrough that could revolutionize the way businesses think about and use the most common of communication tools – the telephone. The cellular mobile telephone is found most often in cars, using low-power radio-frequency carriers to transmit and receive messages in small geographical units called cells. Before the introduction of cellular technology, most North American cities were using high-power radio-frequency transmitters for mobile telephone transmission. Even if a subscriber was lucky enough to have the service, the number of channels was limited, and consequently the possibility of having access to a free line was very slim. Furthermore, once the subscriber got access to a line, the voice quality was poor and privacy almost nonexistent. This is not the case with the cellular mobile system. With the new technology, subscribers are guaranteed access to a free line 99. 9% of the time. The quality of the voice is comparable to that of regular telephone transmission, and privacy is guaranteed. Cellular mobiles became available in the United States in 1979, when Ameritech Mobile Communications began serving 2000 subscribers in the city of Chicago. By 1985, over 30,000 subscribers in the United Stated were using cellular mobiles, and this number continues to grow in the United States as well as in Canada, the European nations, Japan, and many more. Operation of a Cellular Mobile System Since is not feasible to set up a communication link between two moving cars using a standard telephone line, it is necessary to use a wireless system with a radio antenna to send and receive telephone conversation over the air. The term â€Å"cellular† is derived from the word â€Å"cell. † Cities or towns are divided into geographic areas called cells, each with its own transmitter and receiver. Each cell has a low-power transmission capability, thus making its signal too weak to interfere with other cells with ssimilar frequencies. Generally, the frequency occupied by two subscribers within the same cell cannot be used by any other subscribers within that cell. The diagram of a cellular system shown in Figure 12. 1 demonstrates the process of relaying messages from car telephone (or portable telephone) to the cell site’s low-powered transmitter, to the Cantel switching office or MTSO (mobile telephone switching office), and to the wireline telephone company’s switching office, to allow interconnection with the existing telephone system. The message is â€Å"handed off† from one cell site transmitter to the next as the caller crosses a cell boundary, without interruption. A master computer keeps track of which cells are using which frequencies (see Figure 12. 1), and when a subscriber wishes to call a subscriber outside his or her cell, the computer may reassign frequencies. As a subscriber moves from one cell to the next, the assigned frequency may change, but the subscriber will at all times be served without interference (Figure 12. 2). —– Meyers, Mike. 2003. Introduction to PC Hardware and Troubleshooting. Asia: McGraw-Hill / Osborne. Page 390 Much of what makes modern computers so powerful is their ability to connection in small or large groups, or networks, and share files and resources. Every PC tech worth knowing the basics of networking. After all, why get into computing if you can’t while away an afternoon gaming with your buddies, all from the comfort of your computer chair? How Networks Work A network enables two or more computers to share data, hardware such as printers, and even applications. The computers must have some conneactivity, of course: some way for the signal from one machine to reach the other. In addition, the hardware must be compatible and the software set up so that the receiving computer can understand what the sending machine sends. Think of two kids chatting over walkie-talkie as a network for communication to occur, the hardware has to be in range for the signal, and it has to be from the same set, and the kids need to speak the same language. Networks work ssimilarly. Computers connect in two basic ways: In dial-up networks in Local Area Networks. In dial-up connection, your computer uses a telephone line to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), which then gives you access to other computers, perhaps at your office or somewhere on the Internet. Computers in a Local Area Network, on the other hand, are connected to a central box – either by cables or by radio waves – through which they can communicate with each other and, if some machine on the network has the appreciate connection, with other computers on the Internet. Let’s look at how both types of network function before we turn to the nuts and bolts of installing and setting up networks. Dial-Up Networks The most common network connection consists of three pieces: a modem, a working telephone line, and an ISP. The modem enables the computer to communicate via phone lines. The phone line provides the link between the modem and the computers at the ISP. The ISP computers connect to the Big Kahuna of all networks, the Internet. Property installed you to surf, shop, and otherwise explore websites hosted by computers all over the world. Tune in and turn on to dial-up networking. The venerable modem has to recent years been challenged by two new consumer technologies for accessing the Internet so-called â€Å"cable-modems† and DSL (Ddigital Subscriber Line) service. Your computer’s basic need for some kind of pipeline to communicate over hasn’t charged – just the choice of pipeline and the way it’s used. Both technologies take advantage of unused capacity on widely available transmission media. Cable modems use the cables already in place in many homes for receiving cable TV signals as their pipeline to the Internet, rather than the telephone system. The cable TV companies take advantage of the fact that their cable TV signals occupy only a fraction of the capacity of the coaxial cables running into your home. Adding a cable modem to your computer enables it to use the cable TV connection as its pipeline to the Internet. Cable modems aren’t actually â€Å"modems† at all in the sense that the signals they send and receive are entirely ddigital, but because they perform the same function, they go by the same name. you can install an external cable modem to a port (usually USB) on your computer. Page 394 Modem Technology The modem solves one of the problems with the use of analog voice lines to move ddigital data. Modems take incoming analog serial data – in this case, the signal coming over the telephone line- and turn it into ddigital serial data. Likewise, modems turn the signal flowing out of the PC into analog data than can be transferred over the telephone line. This process – called modulation / demodulation – provides the name for the technology: MOdulation / DEModulation, get it! Phone lines have a speed based on a unit called a baud, which is one cycle per second. The fastest rate that a phone line can achieve is 2,400 baud. Modem can pack multiple bits of data into each baud; a 33. 6 kilobits per second (Kbps) modem, for example, packs 14 bits into every baud: 2,400 x 14 = 33. 6 Kbps. It is technically incorrect to say, â€Å"I have a 56 K baud modem. † You should instead say, â€Å"’I have a 56 Kbps modem. † However, people use the term baud instead of bps so other that the terms have become functionally synonymous. Page 415 A network enables two or more computers to share data, hardware such as printers, and even applications. Computers connect in two basic ways: dial-up networks and Local Area Networks. A standard dial-up network connection consists of these pieces: a modem, a working telephone line, and an Internet Service Provider (ISP). To make a LAN work, you need to ensure those things: conneactivity, compatibility, and proper setup of hardware and software. Data is broken up and sent between computers in small chunks called packets and then reassembled. Page 1 Everything in your computer fits into one of two categories: hardware or software. Anything on your computer that you can touch is hardware. However, hardware alone cannot handle all of the PC’s complex activities – it needs the help of software. Software is the technical word for computer programs, the sets of instructions that tell the hardware how to do things. Computer programs are often compared to cooking rrecipes. The recipe tells you how to use the tools to manipulate the ingredients, and if all goes well, you produce something edible. In the same way, software instruct the hardware has it manipulates data to produce the desired results, whether that’s a memo, a ddigital picture, or an email message. Figure 1. 1 shows a sample of program code. —– Stamper, David A. 2001. Local Area Networks – Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Page 135-137 Classes of Software The reason for having a computing system is to solve problems and accomplish the business’ work. The software that does this is called application software. Ordinarily, application software operates in an environment that makes writing and using the application software easier. The environment-creating software can be separated into network management, development and network access. Application Software As we mentioned at the beginning of this section, the main reason we use computing system is to solve business or scientific problems. Thus, the computer and its extension, the network, are simply problem-solving tools. Tthroughout history, humankind has constantly built new tools and improved on those already invented. At the beginning of the computer era, computers were quite primitive tools (at least by today’s standards). Programmers at the dawn of the computing age needed to know not only the nuances of the business problem they were solving but also many of the intricacies of the hardware their solution would be running on. In today’s application environment, we have a supporting cast of software that helps to create an application environment that is mostly hardware independent. Operating System Software Today, we are so need to using OSs to create the system environment that we take them for granted. However, we were into the second generation of computers before OSs appeared and into the third generation of computers before OSs became common. You may correctly infer from this that OSs are not absolutely necessary and, in the early years of personal computing, a vvariety of applications run without using the services of an OS. The IBM Personal Computer (PC) came equipped with a BASIC interpreter in a read-only memory. Thus, if you did not have the disk operating system (DOS), you could still use your computer by writing and running BASIC programs. Without DOS, BASIC was the operating environment. Furthermore, a few early programs functioned in a stand-alone mode. These programs where on a diskette and were loaded when the computer was loaded. In this mode, if you wanted to run another program, you swapped disk and rebooted. Without an OS, the application program is responsible for accomplishing many hardware-oriented functions such as input/output (I/O) and memory management. Because these task are common to all applications, software engineers developed OS software. The OS manages the resources of the computer and creates an application environment in which it is easier to develop and use application software because the OS takes care of a vvariety of functions formerly done by applications. Some of these functions are: †¢ Memory management †¢ File management †¢ User interface †¢ I/O interfaces †¢ Resource allocation †¢ Accounting †¢ Protection/security Today, systems running on a LAN are more sophisticated that the early systems that ran without an OS; a LAN node without an OS is unthinkable. Memory Management – When the computer is started, the OS is loaded into memory a certain portion of the available memory is constantly occupied by the resident portion of the OS. The OS manages the remaining memory and allocates it among itself and the requesting processes according to a memory management scheme adopted by the OS designers. Most current OSs use a memory management algorithm called virtual memory. With virtual memory, the disk is used as an extension of real memory. A process may be thought of as consisting of pages of data and code. File Management – A disk is a raw storage device. It has the ability to store bits of data but inherently does not have the ability to organize those bits into files, files into directories, and so on. The OS provides this level of disk organization. it establish the data structure that allows users to create partitions, directories volumes, and other disk subdivisions. Some file management systems allow multiple disks to be combines into one logical disk. The file management system allows users to create, delete, and access files. The file management system maintains the directory structure and store directory and file information such as the date and time last modified, end-of-file pointer, and the file or directories’ locations on disk. Obviously, there are fundamental aspects of using a system. User Interface – When a programmer begins to write a program, an environment is created for that user. If you are a programmer, you may need to use a text editor, compiler, link editor, and application program interface (API), which allows you to use OS procedures to carry out activities such as creating a new file, or starting a new process. Sometimes a compiler or interpreter includes the API interfaces. Protection Security – Today, nearly everyone is aware that security is an important aspect of computer usage. The OS provides the base on which security is established. We expect the OS to prevent user programs from crashing the system and to eliminate the intrusion of one program into the memory occupied by another program’s data. In shared systems, we also expect the OS and the file management system to provide certain levels of file security. Commonly, an OS will at least provide capabilities that allow administrators to define which users can read, write, or erase a file. How to cite Growth of Telecommunications Systems, Papers

A Systematic Review of Business Incubation Research free essay sample

This article systematically reviews the literature on business incubators and business incubation. Focusing on the primary research orientations—i. e. studies centering on incubator development, incubator con? gurations, incubatee development, incubator-incubation impacts, and theorizing about incubators-incubation—problems with extant research are analyzed and opportunities for future research are identi? ed. From our review, it is clear that research has just begun to scratch the surface of the incubator-incubation phenomenon. While much attention has been devoted to the description of incubator facilities, less attention has been focused on the incubatees, the innovations they seek to diffuse, and the incubation outcomes that have been achieved. As interest in the incubator-incubation concept continues to grow, new research efforts should focus not only on these under-researched units of analysis, but also on the incubation process itself. JEL Classi? cation: M13, O2, O31, O32, O38 1. Introduction Incubator-incubation research began in earnest in 1984 with the promulgation of the results of Business Incubator Pro? es: A National Survey (Temali and Campbell, 1984). Underscoring the enthusiasm of early researchers, only three years passed before two literature reviews were generated (i. e. , Campbell and Allen, 1987; Kuratko and LaFollette, 1987). However, since these early efforts to synthesize and analyze the state of incubator-incubation science, and despite the fact that the body of research has grown considerably 1 Vanderbilt University Management of Technology Program Box 1518, Station B, Nashville, TN 37235 USA E-mail: sean. m. [emailprotected] vanderbilt. du 2 Vanderbilt University Management of Technology Program Box 1518, Station B, Nashville, TN 37235 USA E-mail: david. m. [emailprotected] edu in the intervening years, a systematic review of the literature remains conspicuously absent. The primary objectives of this article are to systematically review the incubator-incubation literature and to provide direction for fruitful future research. Ultimately 38 studies were included in our review. We included a study in our review if it viewed the incubator as an enterprise that facilitates the early-stage development of ? ms by providing of? ce space, sharedservices and business assistance. When examining the literature chronologically, ? ve primary research orientations are evident: incubator development studies, incubator con? guration studies, incubatee development studies, incubator-incubation impact studies, and studies that theorize about incubators-incubation. While these orientations are not necessarily orthogonal, we employ them as classi? cations of convenience that we hope will facilitate a discussion of the literature. We have limited the review in several ways. First, we con? ne our coverage of the literature to studies devoted explicitly to incubators and/or incubation. Although the locus of the incubatorincubation concept is the nexus of forces involving new venture formation and development, new product conceptualization and development, and business assistance (each of which has an established body of research), to expand the scope of the review beyond research explicitly focused on incubators-incubation would make this research project impossible to complete on a timely basis. Second, although practitioner literature has in? uenced academic research, we center our review on the academic literature, except in cases where the practitioner literature has proven especially in? uential and has some intrinsic academic face validity. Third, with our long-term research interests in mind, we selected literature that conceptualizes incubators-incubation as a strategy Journal of Technology Transfer, 29, 55–82, 2004 # 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands. 56 Hackett and Dilts or facilitating new business development rather than as a strategy for developing real estate. While this review is primarily intended for researchers who are considering potential research topics, we also believe that it will be of use to incubation industry stakeholders who are interested in understanding the epistemological evolution of the incubator-incubation concept. Our contribution is a synthesis and analysis of concepts, empirical ? ndings, and problems related to extant incubator-incubation research, as well as an identi? ation of potential areas for future research. In this section, we have noted the need for a systematic review of the literature, provided a working de? nition of the incubator-incubation concept, and delimited the scope of our review. The remainder of the article is organized in the following manner. First, we describe the methodology we employed in identifying and selecting articles for review. Second, we provide a formal de? nition of the incubator-incubation concept, place incubator-incubation literature in its historical context and review the research along the ? e primary research orientations described above. Third, we identify several challenges within extant research and suggest new avenues for future research. Speci? cally, we note the need for future research to address the lack of convergence in the terms and concepts of discourse related to incubators-incubation, the lack of theoretically meaningful incubator classi? cations, the lack of a business incubation process model, and the longstanding challenges in the de? nition and measurement of incubator-incubatee ‘‘success’’. We conclude by emphasizing the need to identify and unpack the variables of business incubation with a view toward developing theories that help to explain how and why the incubation process leads to speci? c incubation outcomes. 2. Methodology for identifying articles for review To identify the population of publications for review, we conducted an electronic journal database search of ProQuest-ABI/Inform, Science Direct and UMI Dissertation Abstracts using the search terms ‘‘incubator’’ and ‘‘incubation’’. Our objective was to conduct a census of all published esearch on incubators-incubation written in English between 1984 and early 2002. After identifying and retrieving all articles archived electronically in the databases identi? ed above, we read the bibliographies of these articles to identify other articles on incubators-incubation published prior to electronic archiving or not archived in the electronic databases, and subse quently retrieved those articles. We reviewed those articles’ bibliographies and found yet more articles dealing with various aspects of incubators-incubation and repeated the process of retrieving articles and reading through the bibliographies. Reasonably con? dent that all extant articles on incubators-incubation had been identi? ed and retrieved, we then checked all of the retrieved articles against a bibliography created by the National Business Incubation Association (NBIA) in 2001 that lists all (peer-reviewed, non-peer reviewed and popular press) articles related to incubation in order to ensure to the best of our ability that the entire population of articles on incubators-incubation had been collected. The articles considered for review appear in the following journals: American Journal of Small Business, Economic Development Quarterly, Economic Development Review, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Harvard Business Review, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Business Venturing, Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, Journal of Product Innovation Management, Journal of Property Management, Journal of Small Business Management, Policy Studies Journal, Public Administration Quarterly, Regional Studies, Research Policy, Technology Management, and Technovation. Ultimately 35 articles (26 empirical studies and nine non-empirical studies), two dissertations and one national survey were included in this literature review (a complete listing of the studies reviewed is included in Appendix A). The distribution of articles among journals was highly skewed toward journals with an economic development perspective: Six articles appeared i n Economic Development Quarterly and another four articles appeared in Economic Development Review. Considering the high number of often-cited publications appearing in these two periodicals, it is clear that the economic development perspective has in? enced the ? eld of published business incubation studies. A Systematic Review of Business Incubation Research 57 The complete distribution of research perspectives applied to business incubation studies is detailed in Appendix B. 3. Primary research orientations In this section, we offer a formal de? nition of the incubator-incubation concept. Next we brie? y describe the historical context in the United States in which incubator-incubation research has evolved. Then we review the literature, using the ? ve primary research orientations mentioned above as our organizing principle. When reporting key ? ndings of each research orientation, we stratify the results based on their relevance to three different units of analysis: community, incubator, or incubatee. Figure 1. Incubator-incubation concept map. graphically depicts the incubator-incubation concept de? ned here. What is the incubator-incubation concept? Based on insights gleaned from reviewing the literature as well as from conducting ? eldwork in Asia and North America, we offer the following de? nition: A business incubator is a shared of? cespace facility that seeks to provide its incubatees (i. . ‘‘portfolio-’’ or ‘‘client-’’ or ‘‘tenant-companies’’) with a strategic, value-adding intervention system (i. e. business incubation) of monitoring and business assistance. This system controls and links resources with the objective of facilitating the successful new venture development of the incubatees while simultaneously contain ing the cost of their potential failure. Additionally, we offer the following corollary: When discussing the incubator, it is important to keep in mind the totality of the incubator. Speci? cally, much as a ? rm is not just an of? e building, infrastructure and articles of incorporation, the incubator is not simply a shared-space of? ce facility, infrastructure and mission statement. Rather, the incubator is also a network of individuals and organizations including the incubator manager and staff, incubator advisory board, incubatee companies and employees, local universities and university community members, industry contacts, and professional services providers such as lawyers, accountants, consultants, marketing specialists, venture capitalists, angel investors, and volunteers. Figure 1 Historical context of ncubator-incubation development in the USA It is generally accepted that the ? rst incubator was established as the Batavia Industrial Center in 1959 at Batavia, New York (Lewis, 2002). A local real estate developer acquired an 850,000 ft2 building left vacant after a large corporation exited the area (Adkins, 2001). Unable to ? nd a tenant capable of leasing the entire facility, the developer opted to sublet subdivided partitions of the building to a variety of tenants, some of whom requested business advice and/or assistance with raising capital (Adkins, 2001). Thus was the ? rst business incubator born. In the 1960s and 1970s incubation programs diffused slowly, and typically as governmentsponsored responses to the need for urban/Midwestern economic revitalization. Notably, in the 1960s interest in incubators-incubation was piqued by the development of University City Science Center (UCSC), a collaborative effort at rationalizing the process of commercializing basic research outputs (Adkins, 2001). In the 1970s interest in the incubator-incubation concept was further catalyzed through the operation of the National Science Foundation’s Innovation Centers Program, an effort to stimulate and institutionalize best practices in the processes of evaluating and 58 Hackett and Dilts commercializing selected technological inventions (Bowman-Upton et al. , 1989; Scheirer, 1985). In the 1980s and 1990s the rate of incubator diffusion increased signi? cantly when (a) the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in the U. S. Congress in 1980 decreased the u ncertainty associated with commercializing the fruits of federally funded basic research, (b) the U. S. legal system increasingly recognized the importance of innovation and intellectual property rights protection, and (c) pro? t opportunities derived from the commercialization of biomedical research expanded. In this environment several incubator development guides4 as well as non-academic reports and articles5 with a geographic and normative focus on current or potential business incubation efforts were generated. This surge in report-generating activity in the early 1980s and the formation of the NBIA in 1985 underscore the growth in popular interest in business incubation in the 1980s. Concurrent to these and other local efforts at studying and unleashing the potential of business incubation to foster economic development, academic incubation studies began in earnest. Much of this early research addresses the questions ‘‘What is an Incubator? ’’ and ‘‘What do we need in order to develop an effective incubator? ’’ Business Incubator Pro? les: A National Survey (Temali and Campbell, 1984), a ground-breaking survey of 55 business incubators, is the ? rst academic attempt to address these questions by describing in detail the incubators operating in the United States. It is comprehensive in scope, taking the incubator, the incubator manager, the incubatees, and the services provided by the incubator as various units of analysis. Although this survey does not test hypotheses or attempt to build theory, its rich descriptive data and insightful perspective established a platform upon which much subsequent incubator development research is based. In the late 1990s, fueled by irrationally exuberant stock valuations of several for-pro? t incubators and/or their incubatees, the media popularized a fantasy of business incubators as innovation hatcheries capable of incubating and taking public ‘‘in? itely scaleable, dot-com ebusiness start-ups’’ less than a year after entering the incubator. This fantasy and the incubatorincubation concept were largely abandoned and left for dead by the popular press after the collapse of the United States’ stock market bubble. 6 However, rumors of the demise of the incubatorincubation conc ept are ‘‘greatly exaggerated’’. The media reached its negative conclusions regarding incubators-incubation while ? xated on forpro? t incubators, a relatively small segment of the total incubator population. The vast majority of incubators are non-pro? t entities that continue to incubate below the ‘‘radar screens’’ of most journalists. Since the establishment of the ? rst business incubator, most incubators have been established as publicly funded vehicles for job creation, urban economic revitalization, and the commercialization of university innovations, or as privately funded organizations for the incubation of highpotential new ventures (Campbell and Allen, 1987). The fact that most incubators are publicly funded is not trivial. Despite normative incubation industry association positions asserting the importance of operating incubators as enterprises that should become self-suf? cient, pro? t-oriented intentionality has not been translated into pro? tability for the majority of publicly funded incubators (Bearse, 1998). Financial dependency forces incubators to operate in a politically charged environment where they must constantly demonstrate the ‘‘success’’ of the incubator and its incubatees in order to justify continued subsidization of incubator operations with public funds. Such a politically charged environment can tempt incubator-incubation industry stakeholders to underreport incubator-incubation failures and over-report successes. 8 For the researcher interested in understanding, explaining and building models of incubator-incubation phenomena, the politically charged environment and the state of subsidy-dependency in which many non-pro? t incubators operate cannot be ignored. Overview of research orientations We review the literature along the following ? ve primary research orientations: incubator development studies, incubator con? uration studies, incubatee development studies, incubator-incubation impact studies, and studies theorizing about incubators-incubation.